Table of herb-drug interactions based on the monographs of ESCOP

The rational use of herbal medicinal preparations is based on the proof of quality, safety and efficacy. An important topic for health care professionals is the knowledge about interactions between herbal medicinal products (HMPs) and medications with synthetic drugs, especially with those with a narrow therapeutical margin.

Despite large numbers of available publications, the results concerning interactions often remain contradictory and in many cases are based on pre-clinical research only or the extrapolation of theoretical mechanisms. Health care professionals need reliable information to allow for a balanced evaluation of herb-drug interactions, with relevance to severity and frequency. The monographs of the European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP) are a source of first class information in these areas. The monographs include a compilation of clinically relevant herb-drug interactions and show that the most frequent ones concern anticoagulants, corticoids, benzodiazepines as well as antiarrythmic, antidepressant and antiviral drugs.

This table is distilled from the ESCOP monographs, which are elaborated by international experts who evaluate available scientific literature and translate relevant data on efficacy and safety for the clinical use of HMPs.

ESCOP herewith provides a functional tool for health care professionals to obtain fast and reliable information on clinically relevant herb-drug interactions.

The compilation is based on the analysis of the clinical relevance regarding the potential interactions between herbal medicinal products and other medications from published scientific data.

Reference: European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP). Table of herb-drug interactions based on the monographs of ESCOP. Source: https://www.escop.com/interactions/. Updated: 30/05/2024.

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Drug (English name)	Drug (Latin name)	Species	Interactions based on clinical data	Publication
Wormwood	Absinthii herba	Artemisia absinthium L.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Agnus Castus	Agni casti fructus	Vitex agnus-castus L.	No evidence in literature. Interactions with dopamine agonists, dopamine antagonists, oestrogens and antioestrogens cannot be excluded due to possible dopaminergic and oestrogenic effects.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Agrimony	Agrimoniae herba	Agrimonia eupatoria L.	None reported.	2019, Online
Lady's Mantle	Alchemillae herba	Alchemilla vulgaris L. s.l.	None reported.	2013, Online
Garlic	Allii sativi bulbus	Allium sativum L.	An increased International Normalized Ratio (INR) has been observed in 2 patients on warfarin and in one patient on fluindione who had used garlic products. The results of studies with saquinavir and ritonavir in healthy volunteers remain unclear.	2019, Online
Barbados Aloes	Aloe barbadensis	Aloe barbadensis Mill.	Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative use) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with antiarrhythmic drugs and with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adrenocorticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance.	2014, Online
Cape Aloes	Aloe capensis	Aloe ferox Mill.	Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative use) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with antiarrhythmic drugs and with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adrenocorticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance.	2014, Online
Marshmallow root	Althaeae radix	Althaea officinalis L.	The absorption of other medications taken at the same time may be delayed. For this reason, other medications should be taken at least 30-60 minutes before marshmallow root.	2019, Online
Angelica root	Angelicae archangelicae radix	Angelica archangelica L. (syn. Angelica officinalis Hoffm.)	None reported.	2021, Online
Aniseed	Anisi fructus	Pimpinella anisum L.	None reported.	2014, Online
Burdock root	Arctii radix	Arctium lappa L. (syn. Arctium major Gaertn.), Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh., Arctium tomentosum Mill.	None reported.	2016, Online
Arnica flower	Arnicae flos	Arnica montana L.	None reported.	2019, Online
Black Horehound	Ballotae nigrae herba	Ballota nigra L.	None reported.	2015, Online
Birch leaf	Betulae folium	Betula pendula Roth, Betula pubescens Ehrh.	None reported.	2015, Online
Boldo leaf	Boldi folium	Peumus boldus Molina	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Calendula flower	Calendulae flos	Calendula officinalis L.	None reported.	2019, Online
Capsicum	Capsici fructus	Capsicum annuum L. var. minimum (Mill.) Heiser, Capsicum frutescens L.	Not to be applied topically together with other external products (e.g. other rubefacient or pain relieving gels) at the same application site.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Caraway oil	Carvi aetheroleum	Carum carvi L.	None reported.	2019, Online
Caraway fruit	Carvi fructus	Carum carvi L.	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Clove oil	Caryophylli aetheroleum	Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill et L.M. Perry (syn. Eugenia caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bull. et Harr.)	None reported.	2014, Online
Centaury	Centaurii herba	Centaurium erythraea Rafn s.l., Centaurium majus Zeltner, Centaurium suffruticosum (Griseb.) Ronniger (syn. Erythraea centaurium Pers.; Centaurium umbellatum Gilib.; Centaurium minus Garsault)	None reported.	2016, Online
Centella	Centellae asiaticae herba	Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Roman Chamomile flower	Chamomillae romanae flos	Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. (syn. Anthemis nobilis L.)	None reported.	2019, Online
Greater Celandine	Chelidonii herba	Chelidonium majus L.	None reported.	Online 2013
Black Cohosh	Cimicifugae rhizoma	Actaea racemosa L. (syn. Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt.)	None reported.	2011, Online
Cinnamon	Cinnamomi cortex	Cinnamomum verum J. Presl.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Cola	Colae semen	Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott et Endl. (syn. Cola vera K. Schum.), Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott et Endl. (syn. Sterculia acuminata P. Beauv.)	Due to the caffeine content, concomitant intake of caffeine-containing drinks or psycho-analeptic medicines may cause a stronger caffeine effect.	2014, Online
Hawthorn leaf and flower	Crataegi folium cum flore	Crataegus monogyna Jacq. (Lindm.); Crataegus laevigata (Poir.) DC. (syn. Crataegus oxyacantha L.)	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Hawthorn berries	Crataegi fructus	Crataegus monogyna Jacq. (Lindm.); Crataegus laevigata (Poir.) DC. (syn. Crataegus oxyacantha auct.), Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. et Kit. ex Willd., Crataegus nigra Waldst. et Kit., Crataegus azarolus L.	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Pumpkin seed	Cucurbitae semen	Cucurbita pepo L.	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Turmeric	Curcumae longae rhizoma	Curcuma longa L. (syn. Curcuma domestica Valeton)	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Javanese Turmeric	Curcumae zanthorrhizae rhizoma	Curcuma zanthorrhiza Roxb.	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Artichoke leaf	Cynarae folium	Cynara cardunculus L. (syn. Cynara scolymus L.)	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Narrow-leafed Coneflower root	Echinaceae angustifoliae radix	Echinacea angustifolia DC.	None reported.	2019, Online
Pale Coneflower root	Echinaceae pallidae radix	Echinacea pallida Nutt.	None reported.	2018, Online
Purple Coneflower herb	Echinaceae purpureae herba	Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench	None reported.	2021, Online
Purple Coneflower root	Echinaceae purpureae radix	Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench	None reported.	2021, Online
Eleutherococcus	Eleutherococci radix	Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. et Maxim.) Maxim.	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Willow herb	Epilobii herba	Epilobium parviflorum Schreb; Epilobium angustifolium L.	None reported.	2024, Online
Equisetum stem	Equiseti herba	Equisetum arvense L.	None reported.	2018, Online
Eucalyptus oil	Eucalypti aetheroleum	Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Eucalyptus polybractea R.T. Baker, Eucalyptus smithii R.T. Baker	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Meadowsweet	Filipendulae ulmariae herba	Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim. (syn. Spiraea ulmaria L.)	None reported.	2015, Online
Fennel oil	Foeniculi aetheroleum	Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. vulgare var. vulgare	None reported.	2019, Online
Fennel fruit	Foeniculi fructus	Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. vulgare var. vulgare; Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. vulgare var. dulce (Mill.) Batt. Trab.	None reported.	2019, Online
Frangula bark	Frangulae cortex	Frangula alnus Mill. (syn. Rhamnus frangula L.)	Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative use) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with antiarrhythmic drugs and with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adrenocorticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance.	2017, Online
Fumitory	Fumariae herba	Fumaria officinalis L.	None reported.	2018, Online
Gentian root	Gentianae radix	Gentiana lutea L.	None reported.	2014, Online
Ginkgo leaf	Ginkgo folium	Ginkgo biloba L.	An interaction with substances that inhibit blood coagulation cannot be excluded. However, no such interactions have been observed in controlled studies.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Ginseng	Ginseng radix	Panax ginseng C. A. Mey	May slightly reduce blood glucose levels. Interaction of ginseng with warfarin is possible.	2023, Online
Couch Grass rhizome	Graminis rhizoma	Agropyron repens (L.) P. Beauv. (syn. Elymus repens (L.) Gould)	None reported.	2016, Online
Grindelia	Grindeliae herba	Grindelia robusta Nutt., Grindelia squarrosa Dunal, Grindelia humilis Hook. et Arn., Grindelia camporum Greene	None reported.	2015, Online
Hamamelis water	Hamamelidis aqua	Hamamelis virginiana L.	None reported.	2012, Online
Hamamelis bark	Hamamelidis cortex	Hamamelis virginiana L.	None reported.	2012, Online
Hamamelis leaf	Hamamelidis folium	Hamamelis virginiana L.	None reported.	2012, Online
Devilïs Claw root	Harpagophyti radix	Harpagophytum procumbens DC., Harpagophytum zeyheri Decne	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Ivy leaf	Hederae helicis folium	Hedera helix L.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Sandy everlasting flower	Helichrysi flos	Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench.	None reported.	2019, Online
Horse Chestnut seed	Hippocastani semen	Aesculus hippocastanum L.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Goldenseal rhizome	Hydrastidis rhizoma	Hydrastis canadensis L.	Investigations in healthy volunteers revealed significant interactions with drugs that are metabolized by cytochrome P450 3A4/5 (e.g. midazolam) and 2D6 (e.g. debrisoquin).	2013, Online
St. John's Wort	Hyperici herba	Hypericum perforatum L.	Oral administration of preparations with a daily dose of more than 1000 mg drug equivalent or more than 1 mg hyperforin can lead to induction of enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family and the P-glycoprotein drug efflux transporter. Interactions can occur with drugs including amitryptiline, fexofenadine, benzodiazepines, methadone, simvastatin, finasteride, digoxin. Concomitant use of cyclosporine, tacrolimus for systemic use, amprenavir, indinavir and other protease inhibitors, irinotecan and anticoagulants (e.g. warfarin or phenprocoumon) is contraindicated. The reduction of plasma concentrations of oral contraceptives could cause mid-cycle bleeding. The use of additional contraceptive measures due to a possible reduction in contraceptive efficacy is recommended. Several cases of serotonergic effects after concomitant use of St. John's wort preparations with certain antidepressants have been reported. The attribution of these cases to St. John's wort remains unclear. Patients taking other medicines on prescription should consult a physician or pharmacist before taking St. John's wort.	2018, Online
Walnut leaf	Juglandis folium	Juglans regia L.	None reported.	2024, Online
Juniper	Juniperi galbulus	Juniperus communis L.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Lavender oil/flower	Lavandulae aetheroleum/flos	Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (syn. Lavandula officinalis Chaix)	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Motherwort	Leonuri cardiacae herba	Leonurus cardiaca L.	None reported.	2019, Online
Iceland Moss	Lichen islandicus	Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. s.l.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Linseed	Lini semen	Linum usitatissimum L.	The absorption of other medications taken at the same time may be delayed. For this reason, other medications should be taken at least 30-60 minutes before linseed. Diabetics should be aware of a potential delay in glucose absorption.	2017, Online
Liquorice root	Liquiritiae radix	Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Glycyrrhiza inflata Batalin, Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch.	Hypokalaemia (resulting from excessive use of liquorice root) may potentiate the action of cardiac glycosides and interact with antiarrhythmic drugs or drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adrenocorticosteroids and stimulant laxatives) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Hop strobile	Lupuli flos	Humulus lupulus L.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Mallow flower	Malvae flos	Malva sylvestris L.	None reported.	2016, Online
White Horehound	Marrubii herba	Marrubium vulgare L.	There are reports from a clinical trial with diabetic patients taking glibenclamide that consumption of an aqueous extract was linked with minor symptoms of nausea, oral dryness or salivation, and dizziness.	2013, Online
Matricaria flower	Matricariae flos	Matricaria recutita L. (syn. Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert)	None reported.	2020, Online
Tea Tree oil	Melaleucae aetheroleum	Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden et Betche) Cheel, Melaleuca linariifolia Sm., Melaleuca dissitiflora F. Muell.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Melilot	Meliloti herba	Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Melissa leaf	Melissae folium	Melissa officinalis L.	None reported.	2013, Online
Peppermint oil	Menthae piperitae aetheroleum	Mentha x piperita L.	Patients with achlorhydria (caused e.g. by medication with H₂ receptor blockers) should use peppermint oil only in enteric coated capsules.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Peppermint leaf	Menthae piperitae folium	Mentha x piperita L.	None reported.	2019, Online
Bogbean leaf	Menyanthidis trifoliatae folium	Menyanthes trifoliata L.	None reported. Due to their structure and low content the coumarins are presumed not to interact with anticoagulants.	2013, Online
Yarrow	Millefolii herba	Achillea millefolium L.	None reported.	2021, Online
Myrrh	Myrrha	Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. (syn. Commiphora molmol (Engl.) Engl. ex Tschirch)	None reported.	2014, Online
Bilberry fruit	Myrtilli fructus	Vaccinium myrtillus L.	None reported.	2014, Online
Indian Frankincense	Olibanum indicum	Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr.	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Restharrow root	Ononidis radix	Ononis spinosa L.	None reported.	2015, Online
Java tea	Orthosiphonis folium	Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. var. aristatus (syn. Ortosiphon stamineus Benth.)	None reported.	2014, Online
Passionflower herb	Passiflorae herba	Passiflora incarnata L.	None reported.	2023, Online
Guarana seed	Paulliniae semen	Paullinia cupana Kunth (syn. Paullinia sorbilis Mart.)	Due to the caffeine content, concomitant intake of caffeine-containing drinks or psycho-analeptic medicines may cause a stronger caffeine effect.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Pelargonium root	Pelargonii radix	Pelargonium sidoides DC., Pelargonium reniforme Curt.	None reported.	2015, Online
Kava-Kava	Piperis methystici rhizoma	Piper methysticum G. Forst	None confirmed.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Ribwort Plantain leaf/herb	Plantaginis lanceolatae folium/herba	Plantago lanceolata L. s.l.	None reported.	2013, Online
Ispaghula seed	Plantaginis ovatae semen	Plantago ovata Forssk. (syn. Plantago ispaghula Roxb.)	Enteral absorption of concomitantly administered minerals (e.g. calcium, iron, lithium, zinc), vitamins (B₁₂), cardiac glycosides and coumarin derivatives may be delayed. For this reason, other medications should be taken at least 30-60 minutes before ispaghula husk. In the case of insulin-dependent diabetics it may be necessary to reduce the insulin dose.	2020, online
Ispaghula husk	Plantaginis ovatae testa	Plantago ovata Forssk. (syn. Plantago ispaghula Roxb.)	Enteral absorption of concomitantly administered minerals (e.g. calcium, iron, lithium, zinc), vitamins (B₁₂), cardiac glycosides and coumarin derivatives may be delayed. For this reason, other medications should be taken at least 30-60 minutes before ispaghula husk. In the case of insulin-dependent diabetics it may be necessary to reduce the insulin dose.	2016, Online
Senega root	Polygalae radix	Polygala senega L.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Primula root	Primulae radix	Primula veris L., Primula elatior Hil.	None reported.	2021, Online
Pygeum bark	Pruni africanae cortex	Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (syn. Pygeum africanum Hook.f.)	None reported.	2020, Online
Psyllium seed	Psylli semen	Plantago afra L. (syn. Plantago psyllium L.), Plantago indica L. (syn. Plantago arenaria Waldst. et Kit.)	Enteral absorption of concomitantly administered minerals (e.g. calcium, iron, lithium, zinc), vitamins (B₁₂), cardiac glycosides and coumarin derivatives may be delayed. For this reason, other medications should be taken at least 30-60 minutes before psyllium seed. In the case of insulin-dependent diabetics it may be necessary to reduce the insulin dose.	2017, Online
Rhatany root	Ratanhiae radix	Krameria triandra Ruiz et Pav.	None reported.	2017, Online
Cascara	Rhamni purshianae cortex	Rhamnus purshiana DC. (syn. Frangula purshiana (DC) A. Gray)	Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative use) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with antiarrhythmic drugs and with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adrenocorticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance.	2015, Online
Rhubarb	Rhei radix	Rheum palmatum L., Rheum officinale Baill.	Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative abuse) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with anti-arrhythmic drugs or with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adreno-corticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance.	2018, Online
Black Currant leaf	Ribis nigri folium	Ribes nigrum L.	None reported.	2017, Online
Dog Rose hip	Rosae pseudo-fructus	Rosa canina L., Rosa pendulina L.	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
Rosemary leaf	Rosmarini folium	Rosmarinus officinalis L.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Butcher's Broom	Rusci rhizoma	Ruscus aculeatus L.	None reported.	2017, Online
Willow bark	Salicis cortex	Salix purpurea L., Salix daphnoides Vill., Salix fragilis L.	Willow bark may slightly increase the effects of oral anticoagulants.	2017, Online
Sage leaf	Salviae officinalis folium	Salvia officinalis L.	None reported.	2021, Online
Sage leaf, Three-lobed	Salviae trilobae folium	Salvia fruticosa Mill. (syn. Salvia triloba L.f.)	None reported.	2014, Online
Elder flower	Sambuci flos	Sambucus nigra L.	None reported.	2013, Online
Senna leaf	Sennae folium	Cassia senna L. (syn. Cassia acutifolia Delile), Cassia angustifolia Vahl	Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative abuse) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with anti-arrhythmic drugs or with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adreno-corticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Senna pods	Sennae fructus	Cassia senna L. (syn. Cassia acutifolia Delile)	Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative abuse) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with anti-arrhythmic drugs or with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adreno-corticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Saw Palmetto fruit	Serenoae repentis fructus	Serenoa repens (W. Bartram) Small (syn. Sabal serrulata (Michx.) Schult. f)	Few case reports of suspected interactions with warfarin. Increased International Normalized Ratio (INR) values have been described.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Wild Thyme	Serpylli herba	Thymus serpyllum L. s.l.	None reported.	2014, Online
Milk Thistle fruit	Silybi mariani fructus	Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.
European Goldenrod	Solidaginis virgaureae herba	Solidago virgaurea L.	None reported.	2018, Online
Comfrey root	Symphyti radix	Symphytum officinale L.	None reported in topical use.	2012, Online
Feverfew	Tanaceti parthenii herba	Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip.	None reported.	2014, Online
Dandelion leaf	Taraxaci folium	Taraxacum officinale F. H. Wigg.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Dandelion root	Taraxaci radix	Taraxacum officinale F. H. Wigg.	None reported.	Online, 2024
Thyme	Thymi herba	Thymus vulgaris L., Thymus zygis L.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Lime flower	Tiliae flos	Tilia cordata Miller, Tilia platyphyllos Scop., Tilia × vulgaris Hayne (syn. Tilia x europaea L.)	None reported.	2022, Online
Tormentil	Tormentillae rhizoma	Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch. (syn. Potentilla tormentilla Stokes)	None reported.	2013, Online
Fenugreek	Trigonellae foenugraeci semen	Trigonella foenum-graecum L.	No evidence in literature.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Cat's Claw bark	Uncariae tomentosae cortex	Uncaria tomentosa (Willd. ex Roem. et Schult.) DC.	None reported.	2018, Online
Nettle leaf/herb	Urticae folium/herba	Urtica dioica L., Urtica urens L.	None reported.	2018, Online
Nettle root	Urticae radix	Urtica dioica L., Urtica urens L.	None reported.	2015, Online
Bearberry leaf	Uvae ursi folium	Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.	None reported.	2012, Online
Cranberry	Vaccinii macrocarpi fructus	Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton, Vaccinium oxycoccus L.	A pharmacokinetic interaction between cranberry juice and warfarin is highly unlikely, despite in some cases with excessive cranberry consumption.	2020, Online
Valerian root	Valerianae radix	Valeriana officinalis L. s.l.	None reported.	2003, 2^nd ed.
Mullein flower	Verbasci flos	Verbascum thapsus L., Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. (syn. Verbascum thapsiforme Schrad), Verbascum phlomoides L.	None reported.	2014, Online
Wild Pansy	Violae herba cum florae	Viola arvensis Murray, Viola tricolor L.	None reported.	2015, Online
Red Vine leaf	Vitis viniferae folium	Vitis vinifera L.	None reported.	2020, Online
Ginger	Zingiberis rhizoma	Zingiber officinale Roscoe	None reported.	2009, Suppl. 2^nd ed.

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References

• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. 2nd edition. Exeter: ESCOP, Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag, New York: Thieme New York. 2003.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Suppl. 2nd edition. Exeter: ESCOP, Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag, New York: Thieme New York. 2009.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Agrimoniae herba (Agrimony). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Alchemillae herba (Lady’s mantle). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Allii sativi bulbus (Garlic). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Aloe barbadensis (Barbados aloes). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Aloe capensis (Cape aloes). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Althaeae radix (Marshmallow root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative On Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Angelicae radix (Angelica root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Anisi fructus (Aniseed). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Arnicae flos (Arnica flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Arctii radix (Burdock root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2016.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Ballotae nigrae herba (Black Horehound). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Betulae folium (Birch Leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Calendulae flos (Calendula flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Carvi aetheroleum (Carum carvi). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Caryophylli aetheroleum (Clove oil). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Centaurii herba (Centaury). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Chamomillae romanae Flos (Roman chamomille flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Cimicifugae rhizoma (Black cohosh). Exeter: ESCOP; 2011.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Echinacea angustifoliae radix (Narrow-leaved coneflower root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Echinacea pallidae radix (Pale coneflower root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Echinaceae purpureae herba (Purple Coneflower Herb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Echinaceae purpureae radix (Purple Coneflower Root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Epilobii herba (Wilow herb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2024.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Equiseti herba (Equisetum stem). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Filipendulae ulmariae herba (Meadowsweet). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Foeniculi aetheroleum (Bitter-fennel fruit oil). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Foeniculi fructus (Fennel fruit). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Frangulae cortex (Frangula bark). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Fumariae herba (Fumitory). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Gentianae radix (Gentian root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Ginseng radix (Ginseng). Exeter: ESCOP; 2023.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Graminis rhizoma (Couch grass rhizome). Exeter: ESCOP; 2016.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Grindeliae herba (Grindelia). ESCOP: Exeter: 2016.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Hamamelidis aqua (Hamamelis water). Exeter: ESCOP; 2012.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Hamamelidis cortex (Hamamelis bark). Exeter: ESCOP; 2012.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Hamamelidis folium (Hamamelis leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2012.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Helichrysi flos (Sandy everlasting flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Hydrastis rhizoma (Goldenseal rhizome). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Hyperci herba (St. John’s Wort). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Juglandis folium (Walnut leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2024.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Leonuri cardiacae herba (Motherwort). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Lini semen (Linseed). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Malvae flos (Mallow Flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2016.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Marrubii herba (White horehound). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Matricaria flos (Matricaria flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2020.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Melissae folium (Melissa leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Menthae piperitae folium (Peppermint leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Menyanthidis trifoliatae folium (Bogbean leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Millefolii Herba (Yarrow). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Myrrha (Myrrh). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Myrtilli fructus (Bilberry fruit). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Ononidis radix (Restharrow root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Orthosiphonis folium (Java tea). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Passiflorae herba (Passionflower herb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2023.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Pelargonii radix (Pelargonium root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Plantaginis lanceolatae folium/herba (Ribwort plantain leaf/herb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Plantaginis ovatae semen (Ispaghula seed). Exeter: ESCOP; 2020.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Plantaginis ovatae testa (Ispaghula Husk, Blond Psyllium Husk). Exeter: ESCOP; 2016.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Primulae radix (Primula root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Pruni africanae cortex (Pygeum africanum bark). Exeter: ESCOP; 2020.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Psylli semen (Psyllium seed). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Ratanhiae radix (Rathany root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Rhamni purshianae cortex (Cascara). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Rhei radix (Rhubarb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Ribis nigri folium (Black currant leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Rusci rhizoma (Butcher’s broom). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Salicis cortex (Willow bark). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Salviae folium (Sage Leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Salvia trilobae folium (Sage leaf, three-lobed). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Sambuci flos (Elder ower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Serpylli herba (Thyme European). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Solidaginis virgaureae herba (European Goldenrod). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Symphyti radix (Comfrey root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2012.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Tanaceti parthenii herba (Feverfew). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Tiliae flos (Lime flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2022.
• European Scientific Cooperative On Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Taraxaci radix (Dandelion root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2024.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Tormentillae rhizoma (Tormentil). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Uncariae tomentosae cortex (Cat’s Claw Bark). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Urticae folium/herba (Nettle leaf/herb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Urticae radix (Nettle root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Uvae ursi folium (Bearberry leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2012.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Vaccinii macrocarpi fructus (Cranberry). Exeter: ESCOP; 2020.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Verbasci flos (Mullein flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Violae herba cum flore (Wild pansy). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative On Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Vitis vinifera folium (Red vine leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2020.

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