The rational use of herbal medicinal preparations is based on the proof of quality, safety and efficacy. An important topic for health care professionals is the knowledge about interactions between herbal medicinal products (HMPs) and medications with synthetic drugs, especially with those with a narrow therapeutical margin.
Despite large numbers of available publications, the results concerning interactions often remain contradictory and in many cases are based on pre-clinical research only or the extrapolation of theoretical mechanisms. Health care professionals need reliable information to allow for a balanced evaluation of herb-drug interactions, with relevance to severity and frequency. The monographs of the European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP) are a source of first class information in these areas. The monographs include a compilation of clinically relevant herb-drug interactions and show that the most frequent ones concern anticoagulants, corticoids, benzodiazepines as well as antiarrythmic, antidepressant and antiviral drugs.
This table is distilled from the ESCOP monographs, which are elaborated by international experts who evaluate available scientific literature and translate relevant data on efficacy and safety for the clinical use of HMPs.
ESCOP herewith provides a functional tool for health care professionals to obtain fast and reliable information on clinically relevant herb-drug interactions.
The compilation is based on the analysis of the clinical relevance regarding the potential interactions between herbal medicinal products and other medications from published scientific data.
Reference: European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP). Table of herb-drug interactions based on the monographs of ESCOP. Source: https://www.escop.com/interactions/. Updated: 30/05/2024.
| Drug (English name) | Drug (Latin name) | Species | Interactions based on clinical data | Publication |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wormwood | Absinthii herba | Artemisia absinthium L. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Agnus Castus | Agni casti fructus | Vitex agnus-castus L. | No evidence in literature. Interactions with dopamine agonists, dopamine antagonists, oestrogens and antioestrogens cannot be excluded due to possible dopaminergic and oestrogenic effects. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Agrimony | Agrimoniae herba | Agrimonia eupatoria L. | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Lady's Mantle | Alchemillae herba | Alchemilla vulgaris L. s.l. | None reported. | 2013, Online |
| Garlic | Allii sativi bulbus | Allium sativum L. | An increased International Normalized Ratio (INR) has been observed in 2 patients on warfarin and in one patient on fluindione who had used garlic products. The results of studies with saquinavir and ritonavir in healthy volunteers remain unclear. | 2019, Online |
| Barbados Aloes | Aloe barbadensis | Aloe barbadensis Mill. | Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative use) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with antiarrhythmic drugs and with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adrenocorticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance. | 2014, Online |
| Cape Aloes | Aloe capensis | Aloe ferox Mill. | Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative use) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with antiarrhythmic drugs and with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adrenocorticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance. | 2014, Online |
| Marshmallow root | Althaeae radix | Althaea officinalis L. | The absorption of other medications taken at the same time may be delayed. For this reason, other medications should be taken at least 30-60 minutes before marshmallow root. | 2019, Online |
| Angelica root | Angelicae archangelicae radix | Angelica archangelica L. (syn. Angelica officinalis Hoffm.) | None reported. | 2021, Online |
| Aniseed | Anisi fructus | Pimpinella anisum L. | None reported. | 2014, Online |
| Burdock root | Arctii radix | Arctium lappa L. (syn. Arctium major Gaertn.), Arctium minus (Hill) Bernh., Arctium tomentosum Mill. | None reported. | 2016, Online |
| Arnica flower | Arnicae flos | Arnica montana L. | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Black Horehound | Ballotae nigrae herba | Ballota nigra L. | None reported. | 2015, Online |
| Birch leaf | Betulae folium | Betula pendula Roth, Betula pubescens Ehrh. | None reported. | 2015, Online |
| Boldo leaf | Boldi folium | Peumus boldus Molina | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Calendula flower | Calendulae flos | Calendula officinalis L. | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Capsicum | Capsici fructus | Capsicum annuum L. var. minimum (Mill.) Heiser, Capsicum frutescens L. | Not to be applied topically together with other external products (e.g. other rubefacient or pain relieving gels) at the same application site. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Caraway oil | Carvi aetheroleum | Carum carvi L. | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Caraway fruit | Carvi fructus | Carum carvi L. | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Clove oil | Caryophylli aetheroleum | Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill et L.M. Perry (syn. Eugenia caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bull. et Harr.) | None reported. | 2014, Online |
| Centaury | Centaurii herba | Centaurium erythraea Rafn s.l., Centaurium majus Zeltner, Centaurium suffruticosum (Griseb.) Ronniger (syn. Erythraea centaurium Pers.; Centaurium umbellatum Gilib.; Centaurium minus Garsault) | None reported. | 2016, Online |
| Centella | Centellae asiaticae herba | Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Roman Chamomile flower | Chamomillae romanae flos | Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. (syn. Anthemis nobilis L.) | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Greater Celandine | Chelidonii herba | Chelidonium majus L. | None reported. | Online 2013 |
| Black Cohosh | Cimicifugae rhizoma | Actaea racemosa L. (syn. Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt.) | None reported. | 2011, Online |
| Cinnamon | Cinnamomi cortex | Cinnamomum verum J. Presl. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Cola | Colae semen | Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott et Endl. (syn. Cola vera K. Schum.), Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott et Endl. (syn. Sterculia acuminata P. Beauv.) | Due to the caffeine content, concomitant intake of caffeine-containing drinks or psycho-analeptic medicines may cause a stronger caffeine effect. | 2014, Online |
| Hawthorn leaf and flower | Crataegi folium cum flore | Crataegus monogyna Jacq. (Lindm.); Crataegus laevigata (Poir.) DC. (syn. Crataegus oxyacantha L.) | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Hawthorn berries | Crataegi fructus | Crataegus monogyna Jacq. (Lindm.); Crataegus laevigata (Poir.) DC. (syn. Crataegus oxyacantha auct.), Crataegus pentagyna Waldst. et Kit. ex Willd., Crataegus nigra Waldst. et Kit., Crataegus azarolus L. | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Pumpkin seed | Cucurbitae semen | Cucurbita pepo L. | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Turmeric | Curcumae longae rhizoma | Curcuma longa L. (syn. Curcuma domestica Valeton) | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Javanese Turmeric | Curcumae zanthorrhizae rhizoma | Curcuma zanthorrhiza Roxb. | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Artichoke leaf | Cynarae folium | Cynara cardunculus L. (syn. Cynara scolymus L.) | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Narrow-leafed Coneflower root | Echinaceae angustifoliae radix | Echinacea angustifolia DC. | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Pale Coneflower root | Echinaceae pallidae radix | Echinacea pallida Nutt. | None reported. | 2018, Online |
| Purple Coneflower herb | Echinaceae purpureae herba | Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench | None reported. | 2021, Online |
| Purple Coneflower root | Echinaceae purpureae radix | Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench | None reported. | 2021, Online |
| Eleutherococcus | Eleutherococci radix | Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. et Maxim.) Maxim. | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Willow herb | Epilobii herba | Epilobium parviflorum Schreb; Epilobium angustifolium L. | None reported. | 2024, Online |
| Equisetum stem | Equiseti herba | Equisetum arvense L. | None reported. | 2018, Online |
| Eucalyptus oil | Eucalypti aetheroleum | Eucalyptus globulus Labill., Eucalyptus polybractea R.T. Baker, Eucalyptus smithii R.T. Baker | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Meadowsweet | Filipendulae ulmariae herba | Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim. (syn. Spiraea ulmaria L.) | None reported. | 2015, Online |
| Fennel oil | Foeniculi aetheroleum | Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. vulgare var. vulgare | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Fennel fruit | Foeniculi fructus | Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. vulgare var. vulgare; Foeniculum vulgare Mill. subsp. vulgare var. dulce (Mill.) Batt. Trab. | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Frangula bark | Frangulae cortex | Frangula alnus Mill. (syn. Rhamnus frangula L.) | Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative use) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with antiarrhythmic drugs and with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adrenocorticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance. | 2017, Online |
| Fumitory | Fumariae herba | Fumaria officinalis L. | None reported. | 2018, Online |
| Gentian root | Gentianae radix | Gentiana lutea L. | None reported. | 2014, Online |
| Ginkgo leaf | Ginkgo folium | Ginkgo biloba L. | An interaction with substances that inhibit blood coagulation cannot be excluded. However, no such interactions have been observed in controlled studies. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Ginseng | Ginseng radix | Panax ginseng C. A. Mey | May slightly reduce blood glucose levels. Interaction of ginseng with warfarin is possible. | 2023, Online |
| Couch Grass rhizome | Graminis rhizoma | Agropyron repens (L.) P. Beauv. (syn. Elymus repens (L.) Gould) | None reported. | 2016, Online |
| Grindelia | Grindeliae herba | Grindelia robusta Nutt., Grindelia squarrosa Dunal, Grindelia humilis Hook. et Arn., Grindelia camporum Greene | None reported. | 2015, Online |
| Hamamelis water | Hamamelidis aqua | Hamamelis virginiana L. | None reported. | 2012, Online |
| Hamamelis bark | Hamamelidis cortex | Hamamelis virginiana L. | None reported. | 2012, Online |
| Hamamelis leaf | Hamamelidis folium | Hamamelis virginiana L. | None reported. | 2012, Online |
| Devilïs Claw root | Harpagophyti radix | Harpagophytum procumbens DC., Harpagophytum zeyheri Decne | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Ivy leaf | Hederae helicis folium | Hedera helix L. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Sandy everlasting flower | Helichrysi flos | Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench. | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Horse Chestnut seed | Hippocastani semen | Aesculus hippocastanum L. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Goldenseal rhizome | Hydrastidis rhizoma | Hydrastis canadensis L. | Investigations in healthy volunteers revealed significant interactions with drugs that are metabolized by cytochrome P450 3A4/5 (e.g. midazolam) and 2D6 (e.g. debrisoquin). | 2013, Online |
| St. John's Wort | Hyperici herba | Hypericum perforatum L. | Oral administration of preparations with a daily dose of more than 1000 mg drug equivalent or more than 1 mg hyperforin can lead to induction of enzymes of the cytochrome P450 family and the P-glycoprotein drug efflux transporter. Interactions can occur with drugs including amitryptiline, fexofenadine, benzodiazepines, methadone, simvastatin, finasteride, digoxin. Concomitant use of cyclosporine, tacrolimus for systemic use, amprenavir, indinavir and other protease inhibitors, irinotecan and anticoagulants (e.g. warfarin or phenprocoumon) is contraindicated. The reduction of plasma concentrations of oral contraceptives could cause mid-cycle bleeding. The use of additional contraceptive measures due to a possible reduction in contraceptive efficacy is recommended. Several cases of serotonergic effects after concomitant use of St. John's wort preparations with certain antidepressants have been reported. The attribution of these cases to St. John's wort remains unclear. Patients taking other medicines on prescription should consult a physician or pharmacist before taking St. John's wort. | 2018, Online |
| Walnut leaf | Juglandis folium | Juglans regia L. | None reported. | 2024, Online |
| Juniper | Juniperi galbulus | Juniperus communis L. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Lavender oil/flower | Lavandulae aetheroleum/flos | Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (syn. Lavandula officinalis Chaix) | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Motherwort | Leonuri cardiacae herba | Leonurus cardiaca L. | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Iceland Moss | Lichen islandicus | Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. s.l. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Linseed | Lini semen | Linum usitatissimum L. | The absorption of other medications taken at the same time may be delayed. For this reason, other medications should be taken at least 30-60 minutes before linseed. Diabetics should be aware of a potential delay in glucose absorption. | 2017, Online |
| Liquorice root | Liquiritiae radix | Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Glycyrrhiza inflata Batalin, Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. | Hypokalaemia (resulting from excessive use of liquorice root) may potentiate the action of cardiac glycosides and interact with antiarrhythmic drugs or drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adrenocorticosteroids and stimulant laxatives) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Hop strobile | Lupuli flos | Humulus lupulus L. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Mallow flower | Malvae flos | Malva sylvestris L. | None reported. | 2016, Online |
| White Horehound | Marrubii herba | Marrubium vulgare L. | There are reports from a clinical trial with diabetic patients taking glibenclamide that consumption of an aqueous extract was linked with minor symptoms of nausea, oral dryness or salivation, and dizziness. | 2013, Online |
| Matricaria flower | Matricariae flos | Matricaria recutita L. (syn. Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert) | None reported. | 2020, Online |
| Tea Tree oil | Melaleucae aetheroleum | Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden et Betche) Cheel, Melaleuca linariifolia Sm., Melaleuca dissitiflora F. Muell. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Melilot | Meliloti herba | Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Melissa leaf | Melissae folium | Melissa officinalis L. | None reported. | 2013, Online |
| Peppermint oil | Menthae piperitae aetheroleum | Mentha x piperita L. | Patients with achlorhydria (caused e.g. by medication with H2 receptor blockers) should use peppermint oil only in enteric coated capsules. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Peppermint leaf | Menthae piperitae folium | Mentha x piperita L. | None reported. | 2019, Online |
| Bogbean leaf | Menyanthidis trifoliatae folium | Menyanthes trifoliata L. | None reported. Due to their structure and low content the coumarins are presumed not to interact with anticoagulants. | 2013, Online |
| Yarrow | Millefolii herba | Achillea millefolium L. | None reported. | 2021, Online |
| Myrrh | Myrrha | Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. (syn. Commiphora molmol (Engl.) Engl. ex Tschirch) | None reported. | 2014, Online |
| Bilberry fruit | Myrtilli fructus | Vaccinium myrtillus L. | None reported. | 2014, Online |
| Indian Frankincense | Olibanum indicum | Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Restharrow root | Ononidis radix | Ononis spinosa L. | None reported. | 2015, Online |
| Java tea | Orthosiphonis folium | Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. var. aristatus (syn. Ortosiphon stamineus Benth.) | None reported. | 2014, Online |
| Passionflower herb | Passiflorae herba | Passiflora incarnata L. | None reported. | 2023, Online |
| Guarana seed | Paulliniae semen | Paullinia cupana Kunth (syn. Paullinia sorbilis Mart.) | Due to the caffeine content, concomitant intake of caffeine-containing drinks or psycho-analeptic medicines may cause a stronger caffeine effect. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Pelargonium root | Pelargonii radix | Pelargonium sidoides DC., Pelargonium reniforme Curt. | None reported. | 2015, Online |
| Kava-Kava | Piperis methystici rhizoma | Piper methysticum G. Forst | None confirmed. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Ribwort Plantain leaf/herb | Plantaginis lanceolatae folium/herba | Plantago lanceolata L. s.l. | None reported. | 2013, Online |
| Ispaghula seed | Plantaginis ovatae semen | Plantago ovata Forssk. (syn. Plantago ispaghula Roxb.) | Enteral absorption of concomitantly administered minerals (e.g. calcium, iron, lithium, zinc), vitamins (B12), cardiac glycosides and coumarin derivatives may be delayed. For this reason, other medications should be taken at least 30-60 minutes before ispaghula husk. In the case of insulin-dependent diabetics it may be necessary to reduce the insulin dose. | 2020, online |
| Ispaghula husk | Plantaginis ovatae testa | Plantago ovata Forssk. (syn. Plantago ispaghula Roxb.) | Enteral absorption of concomitantly administered minerals (e.g. calcium, iron, lithium, zinc), vitamins (B12), cardiac glycosides and coumarin derivatives may be delayed. For this reason, other medications should be taken at least 30-60 minutes before ispaghula husk. In the case of insulin-dependent diabetics it may be necessary to reduce the insulin dose. | 2016, Online |
| Senega root | Polygalae radix | Polygala senega L. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Primula root | Primulae radix | Primula veris L., Primula elatior Hil. | None reported. | 2021, Online |
| Pygeum bark | Pruni africanae cortex | Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (syn. Pygeum africanum Hook.f.) | None reported. | 2020, Online |
| Psyllium seed | Psylli semen | Plantago afra L. (syn. Plantago psyllium L.), Plantago indica L. (syn. Plantago arenaria Waldst. et Kit.) | Enteral absorption of concomitantly administered minerals (e.g. calcium, iron, lithium, zinc), vitamins (B12), cardiac glycosides and coumarin derivatives may be delayed. For this reason, other medications should be taken at least 30-60 minutes before psyllium seed. In the case of insulin-dependent diabetics it may be necessary to reduce the insulin dose. | 2017, Online |
| Rhatany root | Ratanhiae radix | Krameria triandra Ruiz et Pav. | None reported. | 2017, Online |
| Cascara | Rhamni purshianae cortex | Rhamnus purshiana DC. (syn. Frangula purshiana (DC) A. Gray) | Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative use) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with antiarrhythmic drugs and with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adrenocorticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance. | 2015, Online |
| Rhubarb | Rhei radix | Rheum palmatum L., Rheum officinale Baill. | Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative abuse) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with anti-arrhythmic drugs or with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adreno-corticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance. | 2018, Online |
| Black Currant leaf | Ribis nigri folium | Ribes nigrum L. | None reported. | 2017, Online |
| Dog Rose hip | Rosae pseudo-fructus | Rosa canina L., Rosa pendulina L. | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| Rosemary leaf | Rosmarini folium | Rosmarinus officinalis L. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Butcher's Broom | Rusci rhizoma | Ruscus aculeatus L. | None reported. | 2017, Online |
| Willow bark | Salicis cortex | Salix purpurea L., Salix daphnoides Vill., Salix fragilis L. | Willow bark may slightly increase the effects of oral anticoagulants. | 2017, Online |
| Sage leaf | Salviae officinalis folium | Salvia officinalis L. | None reported. | 2021, Online |
| Sage leaf, Three-lobed | Salviae trilobae folium | Salvia fruticosa Mill. (syn. Salvia triloba L.f.) | None reported. | 2014, Online |
| Elder flower | Sambuci flos | Sambucus nigra L. | None reported. | 2013, Online |
| Senna leaf | Sennae folium | Cassia senna L. (syn. Cassia acutifolia Delile), Cassia angustifolia Vahl | Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative abuse) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with anti-arrhythmic drugs or with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adreno-corticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Senna pods | Sennae fructus | Cassia senna L. (syn. Cassia acutifolia Delile) | Hypokalaemia (resulting from long term laxative abuse) potentiates the action of cardiac glycosides and interacts with anti-arrhythmic drugs or with drugs which induce reversion to sinus rhythm (e.g. quinidine). Concomitant use with other drugs inducing hypokalaemia (e.g. thiazide diuretics, adreno-corticosteroids and liquorice root) may aggravate electrolyte imbalance. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Saw Palmetto fruit | Serenoae repentis fructus | Serenoa repens (W. Bartram) Small (syn. Sabal serrulata (Michx.) Schult. f) | Few case reports of suspected interactions with warfarin. Increased International Normalized Ratio (INR) values have been described. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Wild Thyme | Serpylli herba | Thymus serpyllum L. s.l. | None reported. | 2014, Online |
| Milk Thistle fruit | Silybi mariani fructus | Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
| European Goldenrod | Solidaginis virgaureae herba | Solidago virgaurea L. | None reported. | 2018, Online |
| Comfrey root | Symphyti radix | Symphytum officinale L. | None reported in topical use. | 2012, Online |
| Feverfew | Tanaceti parthenii herba | Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. | None reported. | 2014, Online |
| Dandelion leaf | Taraxaci folium | Taraxacum officinale F. H. Wigg. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Dandelion root | Taraxaci radix | Taraxacum officinale F. H. Wigg. | None reported. | Online, 2024 |
| Thyme | Thymi herba | Thymus vulgaris L., Thymus zygis L. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Lime flower | Tiliae flos | Tilia cordata Miller, Tilia platyphyllos Scop., Tilia × vulgaris Hayne (syn. Tilia x europaea L.) | None reported. | 2022, Online |
| Tormentil | Tormentillae rhizoma | Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch. (syn. Potentilla tormentilla Stokes) | None reported. | 2013, Online |
| Fenugreek | Trigonellae foenugraeci semen | Trigonella foenum-graecum L. | No evidence in literature. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Cat's Claw bark | Uncariae tomentosae cortex | Uncaria tomentosa (Willd. ex Roem. et Schult.) DC. | None reported. | 2018, Online |
| Nettle leaf/herb | Urticae folium/herba | Urtica dioica L., Urtica urens L. | None reported. | 2018, Online |
| Nettle root | Urticae radix | Urtica dioica L., Urtica urens L. | None reported. | 2015, Online |
| Bearberry leaf | Uvae ursi folium | Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. | None reported. | 2012, Online |
| Cranberry | Vaccinii macrocarpi fructus | Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton, Vaccinium oxycoccus L. | A pharmacokinetic interaction between cranberry juice and warfarin is highly unlikely, despite in some cases with excessive cranberry consumption. | 2020, Online |
| Valerian root | Valerianae radix | Valeriana officinalis L. s.l. | None reported. | 2003, 2nd ed. |
| Mullein flower | Verbasci flos | Verbascum thapsus L., Verbascum densiflorum Bertol. (syn. Verbascum thapsiforme Schrad), Verbascum phlomoides L. | None reported. | 2014, Online |
| Wild Pansy | Violae herba cum florae | Viola arvensis Murray, Viola tricolor L. | None reported. | 2015, Online |
| Red Vine leaf | Vitis viniferae folium | Vitis vinifera L. | None reported. | 2020, Online |
| Ginger | Zingiberis rhizoma | Zingiber officinale Roscoe | None reported. | 2009, Suppl. 2nd ed. |
References
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. 2nd edition. Exeter: ESCOP, Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag, New York: Thieme New York. 2003.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Suppl. 2nd edition. Exeter: ESCOP, Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag, New York: Thieme New York. 2009.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Agrimoniae herba (Agrimony). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Alchemillae herba (Lady’s mantle). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Allii sativi bulbus (Garlic). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Aloe barbadensis (Barbados aloes). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Aloe capensis (Cape aloes). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Althaeae radix (Marshmallow root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative On Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Angelicae radix (Angelica root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Anisi fructus (Aniseed). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Arnicae flos (Arnica flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Arctii radix (Burdock root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2016.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Ballotae nigrae herba (Black Horehound). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Betulae folium (Birch Leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Calendulae flos (Calendula flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Carvi aetheroleum (Carum carvi). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Caryophylli aetheroleum (Clove oil). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Centaurii herba (Centaury). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Chamomillae romanae Flos (Roman chamomille flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Cimicifugae rhizoma (Black cohosh). Exeter: ESCOP; 2011.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Echinacea angustifoliae radix (Narrow-leaved coneflower root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Echinacea pallidae radix (Pale coneflower root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Echinaceae purpureae herba (Purple Coneflower Herb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Echinaceae purpureae radix (Purple Coneflower Root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Epilobii herba (Wilow herb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2024.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Equiseti herba (Equisetum stem). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Filipendulae ulmariae herba (Meadowsweet). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Foeniculi aetheroleum (Bitter-fennel fruit oil). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Foeniculi fructus (Fennel fruit). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Frangulae cortex (Frangula bark). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Fumariae herba (Fumitory). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Gentianae radix (Gentian root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Ginseng radix (Ginseng). Exeter: ESCOP; 2023.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Graminis rhizoma (Couch grass rhizome). Exeter: ESCOP; 2016.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Grindeliae herba (Grindelia). ESCOP: Exeter: 2016.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Hamamelidis aqua (Hamamelis water). Exeter: ESCOP; 2012.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Hamamelidis cortex (Hamamelis bark). Exeter: ESCOP; 2012.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Hamamelidis folium (Hamamelis leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2012.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Helichrysi flos (Sandy everlasting flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Hydrastis rhizoma (Goldenseal rhizome). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Hyperci herba (St. John’s Wort). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Juglandis folium (Walnut leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2024.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Leonuri cardiacae herba (Motherwort). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Lini semen (Linseed). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Malvae flos (Mallow Flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2016.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Marrubii herba (White horehound). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Matricaria flos (Matricaria flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2020.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Melissae folium (Melissa leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Menthae piperitae folium (Peppermint leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Menyanthidis trifoliatae folium (Bogbean leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Millefolii Herba (Yarrow). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Myrrha (Myrrh). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Myrtilli fructus (Bilberry fruit). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Ononidis radix (Restharrow root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Orthosiphonis folium (Java tea). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Passiflorae herba (Passionflower herb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2023.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Pelargonii radix (Pelargonium root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Plantaginis lanceolatae folium/herba (Ribwort plantain leaf/herb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Plantaginis ovatae semen (Ispaghula seed). Exeter: ESCOP; 2020.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Plantaginis ovatae testa (Ispaghula Husk, Blond Psyllium Husk). Exeter: ESCOP; 2016.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Primulae radix (Primula root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Pruni africanae cortex (Pygeum africanum bark). Exeter: ESCOP; 2020.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Psylli semen (Psyllium seed). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Ratanhiae radix (Rathany root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Rhamni purshianae cortex (Cascara). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Rhei radix (Rhubarb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2019.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Ribis nigri folium (Black currant leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Rusci rhizoma (Butcher’s broom). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Salicis cortex (Willow bark). Exeter: ESCOP; 2017.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Salviae folium (Sage Leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2021.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Salvia trilobae folium (Sage leaf, three-lobed). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Sambuci flos (Elder ower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Serpylli herba (Thyme European). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Solidaginis virgaureae herba (European Goldenrod). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Symphyti radix (Comfrey root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2012.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Tanaceti parthenii herba (Feverfew). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Tiliae flos (Lime flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2022.
• European Scientific Cooperative On Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Taraxaci radix (Dandelion root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2024.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Tormentillae rhizoma (Tormentil). Exeter: ESCOP; 2013.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Uncariae tomentosae cortex (Cat’s Claw Bark). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Urticae folium/herba (Nettle leaf/herb). Exeter: ESCOP; 2018.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Urticae radix (Nettle root). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Uvae ursi folium (Bearberry leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2012.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Vaccinii macrocarpi fructus (Cranberry). Exeter: ESCOP; 2020.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Verbasci flos (Mullein flower). Exeter: ESCOP; 2014.
• European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs, The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Violae herba cum flore (Wild pansy). Exeter: ESCOP; 2015.
• European Scientific Cooperative On Phytotherapy. ESCOP monographs The Scientific Foundation for Herbal Medicinal Products. Online series. Vitis vinifera folium (Red vine leaf). Exeter: ESCOP; 2020.